Alpert, G. P., D. J. Kenney, and R. Dunham. "Police Pursuits and the Use of Force: Recognizing and Managing 'The Pucker Factor': A Research Note." Justice Quarterly 14, no. 2(June 1997): 371-85.Abstract: Examines the nature and extent of force used to take a suspect into custody after a pursuit. While most officers act professionally after a pursuit, some become anxious and tend to use excessive force. Suggestions on reform to policies and training are made.

Anderson, David C. "Policing the Police." The American Prospect (January 1999): 49(1).Notes: Available fulltext on Infotrac.Abstract: Examines police departments' use of police dogs and "find and bite" policies that have led to lawsuits on behalf of people bitten by police dogs on the grounds that the attacks constituted a gratuitous use of force. Studies the results and effectiveness of "find and bark" policies.

Anderson, J. F. and others. "Preemployment Screening and Training Could Reduce Excessive Force Litigation Cases." Journal of Police and Criminal Psychology 13, no. 1(Spring 1998): 12-24.Abstract: Psychologists indicate certain police officers are at risk of using excessive force and that they can be identified during pre-employment screening, or trained. This article examines proactive approaches police managers can use to prevent at-risk police officers from engaging in excessive force. Factors that explain why police officers use excessive force are noted and legal issues associated with excessive force are examined.

This bibliography is a representative selection of materials either owned or on order by the FBI Academy Library. Inclusion of an item does not represent an endorsement by the FBI of the material or its author.

Bolin, Sheila A. and others. Use of Force (Reasonable and Deadly) for Educators, Law Enforcement, Public Safety and Security. Longwood, FL: Gould Publications, 1998.Call Number: KF 9246 .U73 1998Abstract: The common link in a violent encounter is the use of force. When is force justified and what amount is considered reasonable? Though legal requirements for the use of force differ from state to state, the authors believe sound legal and medical training can address and help prevent many liability-related issues. Includes chapters on legal and liability issues, use of force matrixes, illustrations, and prevention techniques, among others.

Bornstein, Jerry. Police Brutality: A National Debate. Hillside, NJ: Enslow Publishers, Inc., 1993.Call Number: HV 7922 .B67 1993Abstract: The 1991 beating of Rodney King by officers of the Los Angeles Police Department thrust police brutality into the spotlight. Some say the police are justified in using force, sometimes extreme, while others see the police as out of control. The author examines the Rodney King case, as well as five other cases, exploring what police brutality is, how extensive it is, and what its causes and solutions are.

Everett, William J. Laws of Arrest Force. Law Enforcement Resource Center, 1994.Notes: Contains three videos and an instructor guide.Abstract: Shows police when to use force and how much force to use. Focuses on verbalization as an alternative to force, and the legal issues surrounding the use of force by police.

Faulkner, Samuel D. and Larry P. Danaher. "Controlling Subjects: Realistic Training Vs. Magic Bullets." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 66, no. 2(February 1997): 20-26.Abstract: Identifies shortcomings in nonlethal weapons. Emphasizes training officers with various methods to address combative subjects and surprise assaults, and teaching officers to be flexible in their responses to confrontations.

Gillespie, Thomas, Darrel Hart, and John Boren. Police Use of Force; A Line Officer's Guide. Shawnee Mission, KS: Varro Press, 1998.Call Number: HV 7936 .D54 G55 1998Abstract: Based on a use of force program developed by the authors called the "Reactive Control Model." The model's purpose is to establish policy and train officers. Each chapter lists its objectives, includes charts, and has a question section at the end.

Hall, John C. "Due Process and Deadly Force: When Police Conduct Shocks the Conscience." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 68, no. 2(February 1999): 27-32.Abstract: Applies provisions in the U.S. Constitution to use of force issues, focusing on the due process clause which prohibits government from depriving any person of "life, liberty, or property, without due process of law." Discusses when due process applies, the Supreme Court's standard of due process as prohibiting those abuses of government that "shock the conscience," and sites court cases demonstrating applications of due process.

"Liability Implications of Departmental Policy Violations." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 66, no. 4(April 1997): 27-32.Abstract: Discusses the common perception among law enforcement agencies that developing internal policies will increase the risks of liability against officers and the department. Clarifies liability implications of policy violations in general, and deadly force policies in particular.

"Police Use of Nondeadly Force to Arrest." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 66, no. 10(October 1997): 27-32.Abstract: Discusses the appropriate level of force officers may use when deadly force is not a reasonable option, based on federal constitutional law. Sites cases as examples.

Ijames, S. "Less Than Lethal: Tactics, Training and Equipment for the Unconventional Encounter." Law and Order 46, no. 12(December 1998): 95-97.Abstract: Encourages less-than-lethal tactics and equipment for dealing with situations such as requests for police assistance by suicidal persons and armed persons who are not directly threatening anyone.

Jefferis, Eric S., Robert J. Kaminski, and Stephen Holmes. "The Effect of a Videotaped Arrest on Public Perceptions of Police Use of Force." Journal of Criminal Justice 25, no. 5(May 1997): 381-95.Abstract: Police use of force has a significant impact on the citizen's perceptions of the police. The media plays an important role in shaping public perceptions of police use force. This article examines the impact of a controversial, violent arrest caught on videotape and widely broadcast on television.

Jett, Monty B. "Pepper Spray: Training for Safety." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 66, no. 11(November 1997): 17-23.Abstract: Oleoresin capsicum (OC) or pepper spray has provided law enforcement with a useful tool in subduing violent subjects. However In-custody deaths arising from the use of pepper spray has caused many departments to reevaluate their use. Several common factors were found in the deaths. Understanding these factors, in addition to knowing what the sprays contain, how they work, and how and when to use them, can help administrators and trainers devise training programs that will enable officers to use OC spray safely and effectively. A department's Use of Force policy should help determine when to use OC spray by deciding where to position it in their force continuum.

National Institute of Justice. "National Institute of Justice; Publications and Products." [http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/nij]. Abstract: The Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 mandated the acquisition of data by the Attorney General on the "use of excessive force by law enforcement officers." A joint effort between the National Institute of Justice (NIJ) and Bureau of Justice Statistics produces an annual report to Congress which can be found on the NIJ website.

Olson, Dean T. "Improving Deadly Force Decision Making." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 67, no. 2(February 1998): 1-9.Abstract: Discusses three ways an agency can help officers make better decisions in deadly force situations: improving policies, training officers in survival physiology, and using dynamic training.

Rosazza, T. A. "Hog-Tying: Is It the Use of Deadly Force?" American Jails 9, no. 6(January 1996-February 1996): 43-45.Abstract: Hog-tying, a commonly used method of restraint, has lead to deaths from positional asphyxia, resulting in many jails prohibiting its use, instead using alternative ways to restrain and control prisoners.

Ross, Darrell L. "Assessing the Patterns of Citizen Resistance During Arrests." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 68, no. 6(June 1999): 5-11.Abstract: Deciding whether use of force is reasonable requires consideration of both the suspect's Fourth Amendment rights and the interest of the state to maintain order. Though no precise test of reasonableness exists, the U.S. Supreme Court established five important factors to evaluate the facts in alleged cases of excessive force, one being whether the suspect was actively resisting arrest. The author analyzed various types of citizen resistance against officers during common types of arrest circumstances. Identifying common types of resistance may enhance an officer's ability to determine and justify the appropriate degree of force.

Savage, David G. "When Bites Are Worse Than Barks; Courts Differ on When Use of Police Dogs Constitutes Unreasonable Force." ABA Journal 82(September 1996): 38-40.Abstract: Many civil actions alleging excessive use of force have been filed against police dog units, questioning not only police departments' "bite and hold" policies used to train police dogs, but whether or not it is reasonable to let dogs loose at all. Analyzes cases Mendoza v. Block and Tennessee v. Garner.

United States. Community Relations Service. Police Use of Excessive Force: A Conciliation Handbook for the Police and the Community. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Justice, 1999.Call Number: J 23.8:P 75/2Abstract: Good policing practices are essential in developing community support. Police use of excessive and deadly force can cause turmoil in communities and diminish trust and confidence in the administration of justice. This guidebook was developed to give options for addressing controversy surrounding the use of excessive or deadly force and offers guidelines for resolving community disputes.

Valensise, Daria. Deadly Force. A&E Home Video. American Justice. New Video Group, 1996.Call Number: HV 6529 .D42 1996Abstract: Part of the American Justice series on the History Channel. Examines the Ruby Ridge and Waco incidents, as well as other lethal encounters, to explore why deadly force incidents are becoming more common.

Walker, Jeffrey T. "Police and Correctional Use of Force: Legal and Policy Standards and Implications." Crime and Delinquency 42(January 1996): 144-56.Abstract: The writer compares correctional deadly force policies and practices with policies governing police use of deadly force, noting that police are held to a higher standard than are correctional officers. He discusses potential consequences of not adopting more restrictive policies in correctional facilities, and recommends policy changes.

Williams, George T. "Reluctance to Use Deadly Force Causes, Consequences, and Cures." FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 68, no. 10(October 1999): 1-5.Abstract: Addresses how to overcome the natural reluctance to kill another human when the need for deadly force arises. Discusses training methods that law enforcement agencies are developing not only to overcome that natural reluctance, but also how to deal with the emotional and psychological aftereffects.

Revised 1/00